This article is one in the Cultural History of Turkey series. For the description of any cultures or tribes please read that article.

After the death of his father, Gündüz Alp, Ertuğrul (Gazi) became the leader his clan and brought his people to Erzincan. In their quest to find a habitable land they moved to the west of Ankara and eventually they settled in Söğüt, near Bilecik, with the permission of the Seljuk Sultan Alaeddin in 1231. Ertuğrul Gazi was from Kayı clan of Oğuz Boz-ok branch.

According to one story when the clan of nearly 400 families with 400 fighters led by Ertuğrul Gazi was relocating to a new place in western Anatolia they saw a fighting in progress. Ertuğrul consulted with his clan leaders. They were wondering which side they should help. They decided to help the losing side. With Ertuğrul’s warriors’ help the balance of the power shifted and the weak side became strong and won the battle. It turned out that before Ertuğrul’s intervention the warriors who were losing the battle were the Seljuk sultan Allaeddin’s fighters and the winning side was a Mongolian force. Because of this brave act Sultan Allaeddin bestowed a principality to Ertuğrul in the Seljuk territory near the border of the Bithynian province of the Byzantine Empire instead of making these fighters paid soldiers in his army.

In fact, it was the Seljuk Empire’s policy to facilitate the migration of Turkmens, coming from the Central Asian steppes, to the west to settle in Anatolia and especially at the frontiers of the Empire. And helping these skilled fighters settle at the frontiers was a good idea, out of security concern since they could help expand or defend the Seljuk territories better.

When Ertuğrul died at the age of 90 in 1288 his son, Osman, became the new leader of his clan. It was Osman, the son of Ertuğrul, the Ottoman Empire is named after. The Ottomans made Söğüt their first capital. At that time the Ottoman territory was 4,800 Km square and consisted of Karacadağ, Söğüt, Domaniç, and its surrounding area, a modest size by any standards. In that period in the border areas where the Mongolian authority was weak, a handful of beyliks were established. Karamanoğulları, Aydınoğulları, Germiyanoğulları, Karesioğulları, Menteşeoğulları, Saruhanoğulları, and Candaroğulları are few to mention. Most of the time these principalities were fighting each other but the Ottomans focused on the Byzantine lands. They were sometimes raiding the Byzantine territories and sometimes they were developing friendly relationships. But in general Osman Bey was expanding his state’s borders at the expense of the Byzantine lands. In other words, the Ottomans, from the beginning of their existence, interacted heavily with the Christians. It was known that sometimes Osman attended the weddings of the Christians. In one of these weddings an attempt had been made to assassinate him. He learned the plot and averted it.

While the other Turkish principalities in Anatolia were fighting with each other Osman was fighting with the Byzantine Empire’s feudal landlords. With the approval of the Seljuk Sultan he took responsibility of defending the area under his control against the Byzantines. Some clan chiefs joined him in this fight and with the authority given to him by the Seljuks, he started conquering the neighboring cities and towns. He took Bilecik and made his new capital. At this time the Anatolian Seljuks rebelled against the Mongolians but failed to defeat them, Sultan Allaeddin Keykubad III escaped from the Mongolian invaders, leaving the Seljuk State headless. Osman Gazi took advantage of this situation and started acting more freely and he declared his independence on January 27, 12998.

There are conflicting views on exactly when the Ottomans became a sovereign state. Some historians accept 1281, the year Osman Gazi became the leader of his tribe. Another date is 1289, when the Seljuk Sultan sent him the gifts which signifies his sovereignty. Another suggestion is the date when the other neighboring Turkish principalities agreed to obey him. Yet another suggestion is 1335, when the Mongolian İlhans State collapsed and Osman stopped paying taxes to the Mongolians.

By the time Osman Gazi died, Bursa1 was captured and made the new capital. Osman Gazi increased the number of his fighters to about 4000 and the size of his territory to 60 miles. The first battle between the Ottomans and Byzantines was fought at Koyunhisar. The Ottomans defeated the Byzantines and this result became a big concern for the Byzantines since a great Empire was defeated by a small tribal force. After, Osman, Orhan became padişah2. He minted the first coin (Sikke)3 of the Ottomans. In the ensuing years the conquests continued. The Ottomans had one great padişah after another and the little principality Ertuğrul Gazi left, first became a big state, and then eventually a big empire.

As they advanced in the Balkans, the victorious Ottoman soldiers took young western widows and girls as servant, slave, and wife. Hence the Turkish gene pool was enriched with genes of the Balkan people and beyond in Europe in addition to the genes of the Tartars, Mongolians, Circassians4, Georgians, Iranians, and Arabs. Also during padişah Murat’s reign a new military institution was established – yeniçeri (janissary)5. This new infantry was made up of boys taken from the Christian families at their tender age and trained and disciplined as fearless soldiers. This process of proselytizing young boys was called devşirme, which was not an invention of the Ottomans. It was a known practice in the East.

However, in the inexorable rise of the Ottomans there were some periods of series setbacks. Sultan Yıldırım Bayezit was defeated by Tamerlane6 near Ankara on July 20, 1402 and became a prisoner. He died of his sorrow in nine months. After his death a chaotic period ensued. During this time Yıldırım Bayezit’s sons fought for the throne. For ten (eleven?) years from 1403 to 1413 the state was left without a padişah and almost fell apart. This period is called Fetret (Interregnum) period in the Ottoman history. Mehmet Çelebi defeated his brothers, re-took some of the lost territories, suppressed revolts and left to Murat II a well established state with all its institutions and strong foundation. For this reason he was called the second founder of the Ottoman state. Tamerlane, on the other hand, was trying to build an empire in the territories that Cengiz Han occupied in the past. Before starting an expedition to China he wanted to remove a great threat from the west by splitting the Ottomans. However, his dreams did not materialize. After his death the empire he built fell apart and disappeared from history.

The Ottoman state was weakened with defeats in the Balkans between 1440 and 1444. The Balkan nations wanted to take advantage of this situation and started a military expedition, against the Ottomans. However, the Crusaders were defeated by the Ottomans in Varna in 1444. A new Crusader army led by the Hungarian King Janos (John) Hunyadi lost the war again in Kosovo in 1448.

Padişah Mehmet II, Mehmet the Conqueror7, was born in Edirne8 On March 29, 1432. He was a tall and strong man. At the same time he was a learned man. He was known to speak seven languages beside Turkish. He spoke French, Latin, Greek, Serbian, Persian, Arabic, and Hebrew languages. He enjoyed the company of other scholars and poets. He loved to read. He used to read philosophy in Persian and Arabic. He was an open minded person. He was a protector of the scholars of all races, religion, and creed. He retranslated Ptolemy’s map. After the conquest of Constantinople9 he brought famous scholars to Constantinople. The astronomer Ali Kuşçu came to İstanbul during his reign and he invited the renowned Italian artist Bellini and had his portrait made although in Islam depicting human figures in paintings and as a sculpture was strictly forbidden.

Conquest of Constantinople was necessary for the Ottomans. Its existence was a threat in many ways. Byzantine was provoking the political entities in Anatolia against each other, taking sides in the fights between the Turkish states. Occasionally it was getting involved in the internal affairs of the Ottoman state. Constantinople was also located in a geographically and geopolitically important place. The conquest would provide the trade and cultural advantages to the Ottomans and bring the straits under the Ottoman authority, facilitating the control of the Black Sea trade routes. After a thousand years the Byzantine Empire was weakened and almost reduced to a city state. The long lasting Empire indebted its longevity not on its military strength but its diplomatic skills. It was getting help from the west when attacked from the east, from the east when attacked from the west.

Mehmet was determined to conquer Constantinople. He started his preparations to take this prized city. To reach his main goal, he treated his other enemies carefully. He accepted the apology of Kahramanoğlu İbrahim, who rebelled but lost the battle against Mehmet. The Padişah treated the Hungarians, Serbians, and Byzantines carefully to gain time and not to provoke another crusade against the Ottomans and signed treaties with the countries and kingdoms to prevent Byzantine from getting help.

The military was supplemented with new units. The number of firearms was increased. The navy was enlarged to be able to siege the city by the sea. The Byzantines also made preparations. They tried to unite the Catholic and Orthodox churches. They reinforced the fourteen-mile walls1. They chained the entrance to the Golden Horn between Sarayburnu and Galata2 to prevent the Ottoman navy entering the city. Mehmet assigned the engineer, Hungarian Urban, to build big cannons in Edirne. These cannons were capable of launching two tone projectiles. In addition to the cannons, he also had his engineers built mortars, mobile towers, and ballistae3 in preparation for the siege. He built a new castle, named Rumelihisar, situated at the narrowest point [width 660 m (722 yards)] of the Bosphorus4 strait (1451) to prevent the city getting any help from the Black sea. This castle was built just across another one, named Anadoluhisar5, which was built earlier by Yildirim Bayezit in 1393. A fleet of 400 ships were built and another fleet was sent to Morea under the command of Turhan Bey, to prevent any outside help reaching to the city.

The years 1452/1453 were spent with the preparations. After completing his planning Mehmet sent an envoy to the Emperor asking him to submit the city without shedding blood. The answer was negative. The Byzantines were ready to defend their city. The Ottoman army came to Constantinople from Edirne and encamped at the front of its walls. The siege started on April 6, 1453 and the Ottoman navy anchored at the mouth of the Golden Horn at Sarayburnu. The city was bombarded for six weeks. The first assault came on April 19. Mehmet’s army was relatively big6. In addition to the main army there were some units from Anatolia and Rumeli7. Although the size of the forces defending city was small the walls were giving a big advantage to the Byzantines. The fighting was intense. The Byzantine forces were heroically defending their city. They were repairing the destroyed parts of the walls. Also the Venetian and Genovese fleets were able to enter the Golden Horn to join the fight. The siege was taking longer than anticipated and Mehmet came to the conclusion that unless the Ottoman navy enters the city he would not be able to win this war. However the Ottoman navy was not able to break the chain installed by the Emperor at the mouth of the Golden Horn. On Aril 21-22 Sixty four8 ships were moved over the land into the golden Horn, which was very demoralizing for the Byzantines. The cannons of the ships started pounding the walls of the city. The next night Mehmed had a bridge built over Golden Horn. Still the city was defending itself. With the fighting continuing the Byzantines started failing to repair some of the holes opened on the walls by the bombardment and some small units of Turkish soldiers entered the city but they were repelled or destroyed. The commanders of the Ottoman army started worrying about the outcome. The Padişah, determined to take the city, gathered his commanders and gave a pep talk and announced his decision that a general assault would start on May 29th. On May 29, a heavy barrage of cannon fire started with the first lights of the day. Thirty Ottoman soldiers under the leadership of Ulubatlı Hasan were able to erect the Ottoman flag on the walls. A short time after that the Cambazhane gate was taken by the Turks. The Byzantine soldiers started retreating. The Turkish soldiers, taking advantage of the retreat, opened up the other gates.

The city resisted to the 53-day siege and three assaults, which were dated April 19th, May 6th, May 12th, but on May 29th, with the fourth assault the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire fell into the Ottoman hands. Mehmet after conquering Constantinople considered himself as the successor of the Great Roman and Byzantine Emperors. So he attacked the Greek Empire at Trabzon9 to eliminate all the potential claimants.

With this conquest the Byzantine Empire disappeared from history. The Ottoman territories in Anatolia and Rumeli (Roumeli, the land of Rum) merged. The Bosphorus strait that is a passage to the Black sea from Aegean, through the Sea of Marmara10, became part of the Ottoman state, which led to the conquests to make the Black Sea a Turkish lake. The sea trade and the Ottoman sea power increased. The fall of the sea trade routes into the Ottoman hands possibly led to the discovery of new routes by the Europeans. Constantinople became the new capital of the Ottoman state and was renamed as İstanbul.

The Ottoman conquest of the whole Aegean Sea and its increased influence in the Mediterranean sea coupled with the expeditions of Padişah Süleyman the Magnificent to Austria and Hungary triggered another crusade. This time the crusader’s fleet consisted of Venetian, Genoese, Maltese, Portuguese, and Spanish ships, six hundred and two all together. This fleet, commanded by Andrea Doria, set sail to confront the Ottomans. The 122-piece Ottoman navy was led by Barborassa Hayrettin (Paşa). The Ottoman navy had a great victory against the Crusaders in the gulf of Preveza on September 27, 1538 (the battle of Preveza).

Süleyman the Magnificent ruled a vast territory inhabited by at least twenty different races with a total population of 13 million. Starting with the second half of the 16th century the Ottoman Empire entered into a stagnation period (1579-699). The stagnation was followed by decline and eventually fall at the end of the World War I. There are internal and external reasons for this development. Although Mediterranean became a Turkish lake the significance of this development was diminished with the discovery of new trade routes to the far east by the Europeans. Also the lineage of powerful, smart, prudent, and brilliant padişahs ended with Süleyman the Magnificent, bringing to the Ottoman throne lesser padişahs. Some of them were neglecting their responsibilities and duties, some of them were inept or simply were too young to manage the country. So mothers of these padişahs or other high ranking officials became more powerful and influential. Some good padişahs tried to fix the problems and reverse the decline but these were exceptions and their efforts did not change the general negative trend. The Ottomans, in their glorious days, established a government system that can endure and survive against all odds, nevertheless it was an authoritarian system. If the leader becomes weak or incapacitated the rest in the chain of command could not govern themselves since all the decisions were used to be made at the top level.

Being a big empire the Ottomans had to fight at multiple fronts at the same time. So the wars were waged by the commanders (paşas) not by the padişahs, which was not a desirable situation since the Ottoman soldiers wanted to see their padişahs leading during the wars. The European powers were getting better not only in military, but also in social and economic areas. Some countries, such as Russia, started expanding their territories at the expense of the Ottomans. Distances between İstanbul and the battle fields became a problem. Carrying big cannons to the battle field was difficult with the technology of the time. These prolonged wars became a burden to the Ottoman treasury instead of bringing booty. The Ottoman economy started deteriorating partly due to the diminished importance of Mediterranean Sea, partly due to the long and protracted wars, partly due to reaching natural borders, such as mountains, and seas. The state had to increase the taxes to finance the wars. The corruption became more prevalent. The local government officials started treating people badly. This caused revolts in Anatolia and elsewhere in the Ottoman territories, creating security issues the government had to deal with. The state was under attack from inside and outside and in all fronts. The military started losing its strength for a variety of reasons. Yeniçeries, which were allowed to marry and get involved in trade, lost their fighting spirit and discipline and mutiny became common.

The economic concessions made and the rights given to the European countries restricted and reduced the activities of the Ottoman traders. The press was invented and the book publishing became common in Europe. The Europeans with Renaissance became more science and technology oriented. The geographic discoveries helped Europe become rich. The Ottomans on the other hand thought Renaissance as just another trend of painting and sculpture, not understanding its importance and scope. The reforms made in the Ottoman lands were mostly focused on the military and government administration, ignoring the fundamental developments in Europe. Being far from the oceans the Ottomans did not participate in the geographic discoveries. The coin was debased, corruption increased, and bribing became common. With the advent of the firearms the battles in the fields disappeared. The empire lost most of the territories in Europe and some in Anatolia and became the “sick man” of Europe.

In 1908 a new organization called “Ittihat ve Terakki” asserted its sovereignty over the Ottoman Empire, with the help of the army commander Mehmet Sevket Paşa and became a significant power center in the affairs of the state until 1918. Although many prominent individuals, including Mustafa Kemal, were members of this organization, the triumvirate consisting of Enver, Talat, and Cemal Paşas was the dominant authority. It ruled the state with dictatorial methods in this period and played a major, albeit negative role before and during the World War I. They brought disaster upon the Ottoman Empire with its adventures.

There were many reasons why the World War I started. Some of them were the political fight between Germany and England, the conflict between Germany and France on Alsace-Lorraine territory, the struggle for influence between Austria and Russia over the Balkans. However, the main reason of the war was economic. With the industrial revolution the European countries started searching for new markets for their industrial products. The struggle to find new markets for their goods led to the World War I.

The Balkan wars ended with heavy Ottoman losses. The Ottoman Empire, after many defeats and territorial losses, was weak and exhausted. It needed time to recuperate. It was not in a state to join another devastating war. However, the leaders of the organization, called “Ittihat ve Terakki,” taking advantage of padişah’s weakness, was ruling the Empire and their leader Enver Paşa was eager to see action. The worst thing to do was to take side in this European war and join the fight. Instead a prudent government could have waited the end of the war and improve its economic situation and reform its army. By then all the warring sides would be exhausted and the Ottomans could have recovered some of the lost territories. The leader of the triumvirate2, Enver Paşa, was very eager to join the war. He also had a very good relationship with the Germans. In the preceding years the Ottoman army was trained by the Germans. He was dreaming to take back most of the lost territories as a victorious country. The Germans were also very much interested in having the Ottomans on their side. The Ottomans joined the World War I as a German Ally – Central Powers. The Turkish armies fought well at many fronts. In some cases they were successful. Their defense led by Mustafa Kemal at the Dardanelles strait against the English navy was heroic. However, these successes did not change the fate of the war. The Turks won the battles but lost the war.

The Armistice of Moudros was signed on October 30, 1918. İstanbul was invaded by the English forces on March 16, 1920 and later French joined in the invasion. The parliament in İstanbul was occupied and dissolved by the English forces and some of its members were arrested. The treaty of Sevres was signed on August 20, 1920. These agreements contained many humiliating conditions that were threat to the very existence of the Ottoman Empire and the Turks. Europeans were able to draw out the Turks from most of the Europe.

According to the Sevres treaty the Ottomans were losing the Arabian lands. The whole Thrace and the western part of Anatolia, including İzmir were given to the Greeks. The Greeks were also taking the eight Turkish islands. The Dodecanese (Oniki Ada) had to be given to the Italians. An independent Armenia and autonomous Kurdistan had to be established. The rest of Anatolia would be French and Italian districts. Only a small landlocked center, whose access to the seas controlled by the Allies, would be left to the Ottomans.

İzmir was invaded by the Greeks on May 15, 1919 and a resistance movement started in Anatolia. The Turks, who lost confidence in the İstanbul Government’s ability to protect and defend the country, started gathering around a new leader, Mustafa Kemal. He was a general in the Ottoman army. Somehow, he managed to get an assignment in Anatolia. He was sent there as an inspector. His job was to assess the situation between the Turks and Greeks. However, he was able to get more authority then a simple inspector would get and was able to bring a large team of commanders. He left İstanbul and first landed in Samsun on May 19, 1919. This date is accepted by the historians as the beginning of the struggle for the liberation of the Turkish nation. From Samsun he went to Havza and then to Amasya3 and sent messages to all the local Anatolian authorities informing the Turkish nation the dire situation it is in and asking the people to take the matter in their hands and protest the invasion. He worked hard and made plans to unite the people of Anatolia and establish a new army. The Government in İstanbul recalled him. Instead of returning he resigned from military on July, 8-9, 1919. The İstanbul government sent a general, Kazım Karabekir Paşa, to arrest him but the general did not follow the order, instead joined Mustafa Kemal in this cause. Mustafa Kemal called for a congress to meet in Sivas Sept 4-11, 1919, the most secure region at that time. After Sivas he moved to Ankara and helped establish a new parliament. The representatives from all over the country met in Ankara including some who escaped from İstanbul after its invasion. This new parliament decided to form a new government on May 3, 1920 and Mustafa Kemal informed all the foreign countries of this development and notified them that Ankara would not recognize any agreement signed by the Ottoman Government in İstanbul.

n the next three years the people of Anatolia under the leadership of Gazi Mustafa Kemal Paşa fought a fierce independence war against all the invading armies, the French, English, Italian, and others. The invaders were actually weak being just out of the devastating World War I. They did not have resources to fight. So they left Anatolia easily, one by one, accepting the sovereignty of the new Turkish government. The Russians already withdrew from the war, signed a treaty with Ankara after the Russian, October, Revolution in 1917. And finally, on August 29, 1922, one hour before the down, the Turkish armies mounted a major counter attack against the Greek armies, with the order of Mustafa Kemal. The Greek armies were defeated on August 30. The Turkish armies entered into İzmir on September 8, 1922.

Invitation of the İstanbul government in addition to the government in Ankara by the Allied powers for a meeting angered the parliament in Ankara. Mustafa Kemal took an advantage of this opportunity and proposed in the parliament that the secular and religious authorities of padişah should be separated and padişah should be stripped of his secular authority. This was a smart move since he knew that there were many conservative members in the parliament who would oppose the removal of padişah’s religious authority. Padişah Vahdettin left İstanbul and went to San Remo and then to Malta. In his place Abdulmecit was elected as the new Caliph. This was the end of the Ottoman Empire. Vahdettin (Mehmed VI), the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, died in San Remo on May 16, 1926. As a confirmation of the victory of Ankara the Lausanne Peace treaty was signed on July 24, 1923. With this treaty Mustafa Kemal was able to dictate to the western powers the new borders he demanded. And the sovereignty of Ankara over the whole Anatolia and east Thrace in Europe, including Edirne was accepted by the World War I Allies.

After so many centuries ruled by mediocre and lesser leaders and going through its nadir at the end of the World War I the Turks found the genius leader in Mustafa Kemal.

By joining the World War I as an ally to Germany and Italy, Ottoman empire, already weak and dysfunctional, expedited its own demise. At the end of the war, a defeated Empire lost all the lands. Except a small area in the center of Anatolia, most of the homeland of Turks were invaded by the enemies. After Ottoman Dynasty lost its legitimacy, the people of Anatolia, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, had risen, defeated the invaders in Asia Minor and established another state, the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923.

In its apex Ottoman Empire spread into three continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa, surrounding most of the Aegean sea. The borders reached to the straight of Gibraltar and Morocco Coasts in 1553 in the west, to the Caspian sea and gulf of Basra1 in the east, Sudan, Eretria, Somalia, and Yemen in the south. It consisted of 29 provinces. Transylvania (Hungarian: Erdely, Romanian: Ardeal, Turkish: Erdel), Vlachs (Wallachia, Eflak, Ak Eflak), and Moldavia (Bogdan, Kara Eflak, Romanian: Moldova) were principalities taxed by the Ottoman Empire. It became a bridge between east and west and represented Islamic world in its glorious years. Empire lasted for 623 years.

The Ottoman history can be divided into the following distinct phases, starting from its establishment until its downfall at the end of World War I.

Phases in the Ottoman Empire

• Establishment of the Sate (1299-1453)
• Interregnum (1402-1413)
• Rising Power in Asia Minor (1453-1579)
• Stagnation (1579-1683)
• Decline (1683-1792)
• Downfall (1792-1920)

In its long history of Ottoman Dynasty numerous Padişahs reigned. Some of them were great, some of them were not. Below is a list of them in chronological order.

The Ottoman Sultans

• Osman Gazi
• Orhan Gazi
• Murat Hüdavendigar
• Yıldırım Bayezit
• Çelebi Mehmet
• Murat II
• Mehmet, the Conqueror (Mehmet II)
• Bayezit II
• Yavuz Sultan Selim
• Süleyman, the Magnificent
• Selim II (Sari)
• Murat III
• Mehmet III
• Ahmet I
• Mustafa I
• Genç Osman
• Murat IV
• Sultan İbrahim
• Avcı Mehmet
• Süleyman II
• Ahmet II
• Mustafa II
• Ahmet III
• Mahmut I
• Osman III
• Mustafa III
• Abdulhamit I
• Selim III
• Mustafa IV
• Mahmut II
• Sultan Abdulmecit
• Abdulaziz
• Murat V
• Abdulhamit II
• Mehmet Reşat V
• Mehmet Vahdettin VI

Sources

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10. Mill, John, “The Ottomans in Europe; or Turkey in the present Crisis, with the secret societies’ Maps. Second Edition, London, Weldon & Co., Wine Office Court, Fleet Street, 1877.
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This article is one in the Cultural History of Turkey series. For the description of any cultures or tribes please read that article.