The Bronze Age in Turkey (c 3,000 – 1,200 BC)

This article is one in the Cultural History of Turkey series. For the description of any cultures or tribes please read that article.

With the invention of bronze, a tin and copper alloy, Anatolia (Asia Minor) in Turkey entered the Bronze Age around 3,000 BC, a thousand years later than Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Bronze Age had three phases, namely Early, Middle, and Late Bronze Ages.

In the Bronze Age different parts of Anatolia (Asia Minor) developed different characteristics. Initially Eastern and Southeastern regions were under the influence of Mesopotamia and Northern Syria but later, as a result of migrations they came under the influence of the Early Transcaucasia culture. The cultural development of Northwest, especially Thracia2, on the other hand, can be divided into two phases. In the first phase, it was under the influence of the Balkans in the beginning of the Early Bronze Age (3,000 BC) and it was mostly a rural culture. From the middle of the First Bronze Age onwards it showed more Anatolian characteristics. A good example to this description is the site in Kanlıgeçit in Thracia.

In the Early Bronze Age the bronze use was still not common. Most of the tools were made from stone. Central Anatolia (Asia Minor)r kept its simple village-based life style. The outstanding development in this period was the invention of the four-wheel oxen carriages with cylindrical wheels.

Western Anatolia’s prehistoric past can only be extended back to 3,000 BC (the beginning of Early Bronze Age). The known archaeological sites are Troy, Demircihöyük near Eskişehir, Kusura, Karataş Semayuk, Beycesultan, Iasos, Aphrodisias, Old İzmir, Panaztepe near İzmir, Yortan, Urla, and Limantepe. Major cultural centers in Central Anatolia in this period were Koskerbaba, Nor#1untepe, Alisar, Karaoğlan, Tarsus, Yumuktepe in Mersin, and İkiztepe.

In addition to copper, lead was also a known metal since the Neolithic Age. Because of its low melting point (327˚C) and advances made in metallurgy its use is increased in the Early Bronze Age. By the time the Assyrian Trade Colonies’ period is reached its use became very common. Since 3,000 BC, lead was used in making variety of things, such as pottery-spinning wheel, figurines, ornaments, and cups. It was also used as currency in trade. The lead rings from the Hittite period are good examples for this kind of use5.

It might be worth mentioning that, other than bronze, copper, and lead, obsidian use was important in Anatolia (Asia Minor) in the Bronze Age. A proof to this is the obsidian workshop unearthed in Bakla Tepe during excavations.

In the Middle Bronze Age, although the Anatolians still had not started using written language7, the Central Anatolia (Asia Minor) made big progress and developed a civilization on par with its contemporaries. The major progress areas were city planning, architecture, and sculpture. The most important event of this period was the invention of the pottery-spinning wheel. This was the beginning of mechanization. Also during this period some theocratic states and kingdoms appeared, notably the most known ones were the Hatti states and Troy II Kingdom, near Çanakkale. This was also the period when Anatolia transitioned from prehistoric to protohistoric period.

In this period there were many city-states fighting against each other and also against the neighboring kingdoms Anatolia, such as the Arkadians8. Also there was an organized trade between the Southeastern Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Until 2300 BC what was known about Anatolia was derived from the artifacts found in excavations since writing was not known. It was still in the prehistoric period. However, the last phase of the Middle Bronze Age (2300 – 2000 BC) was studied not only through archaeological research but also through written texts, which gave, for example, accounts of the Akkadian king Sargon’s interactions with the indigenous kings in Asia Minor (protohistoric period). Some of these writings were created much later though by other civilizations, namely Hittites. According to one of these writings, the Assyrian traders complained about a king in Anatolia to the king Sargon of Akkad. The king, who was complained about, was possibly King Nur-daggal, an indigenous king of Asia Minor. The King Sargon had a military campaign to fight against the king Nur-daggal. According to the story, other kings joined king Nur-daggal to fight against king Sargon but King Sargon defeated them by creating holes in the walls of the fortified city king Nur-daggal was defending.

Anatolia was invaded and settled by many tribes. the Archaians9, Hittites, Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians are few to mention. Around the second half of 2000 BC, the Assyrian traders colonized the lands covering Central Anatolia. Also tribes migrating from the Balkans and the Greek islands colonized Anatolia.

Excavations in Yenibademli Höyük in the Northeast Aegean Sea region indicated that the port cities of Aegean and Mediterranean regions of Anatolia were very busy places in the Early Bronze period. The trade was one of the most important economic activities. The interaction with other tribes and cities had also some negative consequences. So the dwellers of these towns had built strong defense systems like walls around their towns1. The houses had stone foundation and mud-brick walls. To keep themselves warm in the cold winters they had built fireplaces in their houses, which were built close to each other for possibly a better and easier defense. It can be seen from the ceramics and other artifacts found that, their main economic activities were agriculture, animal husbandry, trade, and craft. However, Yenibademli Höyük did not reach to the same competitive levels of Troia, Poliochni, and Thermi.

Excavations in Oylum Höyük, near Gaziantep gave some ideas about the human burial traditions in the Bronze Age. According to these excavations, the most common burial approach was to put the dead in a fetal position in an earthenware container. The next common one was burying the dead in a tomb. The third one was again placing the dead in a fetal position but directly in soil without any container. Another finding was that most of the dead were children showing the death of children was a common problem in Anatolia since those times. However, the from excavations in Bakla Tepe it was also learned that the tradition of cremation, in addition to burial, was known and practiced in Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age. The bodies were burned in the crematoriums together with the personal belongings and some animal remains. The ashes were placed in the earthenware urns and kept in the tombs.

Excavations in Gre Virike, between Birecik and Karkamiş on Euphrates Terrace unearthed artifacts from the beginning and middle of 3000 BC. Unearthed items showed that the religious beliefs were strong. Ceremonies were held. The rituals for fertility and death were practiced. Among the items found were pits with ash and grains, tomb complexes, open-air kitchen, and sacrifice offering chambers.

Excavations in the settlements in Bornova and Kemalpaşa provinces, showed the level of urbanization and the extent of trading. Among other things traded was olive and olive oil. In the Middle and Late Bronze Ages on the other hand, the ceramic production was still an important activity.

Troia (Troy)

One of the well known civilizations of the Bronze Age is the Trojans. The name of the city, where they lived, is called Troia (Troy) in Hisarlık near Çanakkale. There is a controversy about the interpretation of the findings in this site. There are two views, one of which believes that the site in Hisarlık is the ancient place where the Greeks and Trojans had a ten-year war, which is narrated by Homer in his epic poem Iliad. The other view, on the other hand, is that Hisarlık is not the place for this war. The archaeologist subscribing to this view think that the facts do not add up. It seems like jury is still out. This dispute will be settled one day as the new studies prove it one way or another. Also there seems to be some confusion about the date of the 10-year war if it ever happened. Some archaeologists believe that this famous war was fought at the end of Troy VI (c 1250 BC), where as, the others think that it happened at the end of Troy VIIa (c 1180 BC).

The ruins in Hisarlık are made of levels. The cities are built on top of the previous destroyed ones. There are nine main levels (cities/citadels). Some references give higher numbers, depending on how they count, because some levels have their sub-levels. Only levels I to VIIa fall into the Bronze Age.

The gold artifacts found in the King Priam’s treasure were “taken” by Heinrich Schliemann and brought to Berlin, Germany. Later, during World War II they were “taken” by Russians from Germany and exhibited in Pushkin Museum. A small portion of the artwork left in Turkey is exhibited in İstanbul Archaeology Museum.

Chronology of Troy

  • Troy I
  • Troy II
  • Troy III-V
  • Troy VI
  • Troy VIIa
  • Troy VIIb
  • Troy VIII
  • Troy IX

The walled city of Troy I (c 3,000 – 2,500 BC) was 295 feet (90 Meters) in diameter. Houses were megaron style and the walls were built from stone instead of mud-brick. The metallurgy was highly developed. Tin and bronze were used extensively. Among the artifacts found were metal containers and vessels to bury the dead. The Trojans built their cemeteries outside the city walls.

Troia II (c 2,500 – 2,200 BC) was built on top of the ruins of Troia I. The walled city was enlarged so that it had a diameter of 361 feet (110 Meters). Houses were again megaron style. It was a prosperous city, as it can be surmised by the unearthed ruins. However, pottery quality was lower than their contemporaries, such as Sumerians. They were trading with Syria via Cilicia. The treasure found by Heinrich Schliemann belonged to this level. The citadel was destroyed by fire.

Troy III – V (2,300 1,700 BC) showed some decline in wealth and preeminence. There was also some reduction in population1.

Troy VI (1,700 – 1.260 BC) expanded quite a lot in the Late Bronze Age. Most of the dwellings were built outside the walls of the city. Especially the levels VIa and VIh are the most likely candidate cities where the 10-year war, narrated in the Homer’s epic poem Iliad, was fought. According to the famous poem, the Archaians (a Mycenaean tribe) defeated the Trojans with a trick. Acting like they gave up fighting, they left a wooden horse behind them. When the Trojans took the bait and brought the wooden horse, with the soldiers hidden in it, into the citadel the Archaians attacked and sacked the city, which was big and prosperous and an important hub in the Northwest Anatolia. This is an interpretation of the ancient history according to one camp in the dispute. Others think that an earthquake destroyed the city2. Some others think that earthquake made the Archaians job easier3. Earthquake damaged the city in c 1350 BC but could not destroy completely. There are evidences that in c 1250 BC (Troy VIIa) there was a fire, which is attributed to the siege and destruction of the city by the Archaians. Again according to the alternative view the main cause of the war is attributed to the power struggle between the Trojans and Mycenaeans to control the strategic places like Dardanelles and the Black Sea, not the abduction of Helen by Paris. The second view seems to be realistic as opposed to the romantic first view.

Troy VIIa (1,260 – 1,200 BC) was destroyed by fire. Some archaeologists argue that Troy VII was the city of the King Priam4. Troy VIIb (1,200 – 1,100 BC) was also destroyed by war. Although, there are questions about this war.

Troy VIII (700 – 85 BC) was settled by the Greeks in 700 BC and it became an important city again in Troad5 in 206 BC, it fell to the Persians in 590 BC and Alexander the great of Macedonia took it in 343 BC. In 188 BC it was part of the Roman Empire and destroyed in 85 BC during the Mithridatic War.

Troy IX was built in c 20 BC after the Roman Emperor, August visited. It was later destroyed by the Herulian raiders in AD 267, and had an earthquake in the early 6th century, abandoned in the 9th century, settled again in the Byzantine period and abandoned during the Ottoman Period.

Sources

  1. Ekrem Akurgal, “Anadolu Kültür Tarihi,” TÜBİTAK Popüler Bilim Kitaplari, April 2008, ISBN 978-975-403-107-2.
  2. Erkanal, O, Armağan, Prof. Dr. “Panaztepe’de Bulunan Kurşun Külçenin/Ağırlıgın Madencilikte Yeri ve Önemi,” Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Arkeoloji Bölümü. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 2006, Cilt 23, Sayı 2, ss 1 – 20.
  3. Uysal Uğur, Gülfem, “Oylum Höyük Çocuklarının Palaeopatolojik Açidan Analızı,” Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 12, Sayl 1-2 Eylül, 19951 s.187-206 Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Antropoloji Bölümü.
  4. Derin, Zafer, Yrd. Doç. Dr. (Proje Yürütücüsü) Batmaz, Atilla, (Proje Yürütücüsü Yardımcısı)/Ege Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi Arkeoloji Bölümü, Bornova İzmir, TUBA Kültür Envanteri Dergisi 2, 2004, “Bornova-Kemalpaşa (İzmir) Arkeolojik Envanteri 2003.”
  5. Kolankaya – Bostancı, Neyir, Aras. Gör. Dr., Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Arkeoloji Bölümü. “Bakla Tepe Erken Tunç Çağı I Dönemi Obsidyen Atölyesi,” Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 2006, Cilt : 23, Sayı : 2, ss. 221-232.
  6. Okse, Tuba, A, Doç. Dr., Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Arkeoloji Bölümü, “Gre Virike: Fırat Kenarında Bir M.Ö. 3. Bin Kutsal Alanı,” Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 2002, Cilt: 19, Sayı: 2, ss. 53-74.
  7. Erdal, Yılmaz Selim, Doç. Dr., Hacettepe Üniversitesi Antropoloji Bölümü, “Bakla Tepe Geç Tunç Çağı Mezarından Gün Işığına Çıkarılan Yanmış İnsan İskelet Kalıntılarının Antropolojik Analizi”, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 2002, Cilt: 19, Sayı: 2, s. 115-130.
  8. Hüryılmaz, Halime, Yrd. Doç. Dr., Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Arkeoloji Bölümü. Yenibademli Höyük: Kuzeydoğu Ege Denizi’nde Bir Erken Tunç Çağı Yerleşmesi Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi Cilt:19, Sayı: l, 27-44.
  9. Yigit, Turgut, A.Ü.DTCF, Tarih Bölümü. “İlk Tunç Çağı’nın Son Evresinde Anadolu’nun Siyasal Görünümü”.
  10. Ozdoğan, Eylem, “Trakya’da Bir Tunç Çağı Yerleşimi: Kanlıgeçit,” Türk Eskiçağ Bilimleri Enstitüsü Haberler, Kazı – Araştırma, Ocak 2005, Sayı: 19.
  11. Hunter, Dr Erica, Dr., University of Cambridge “Anatolia before the Greeks,” Australians Studying Abroad, 2000, www.elsewhereonline.com.au.
  12. Hertel, Dieter, Kolb, Frank, University of Cologne, University of Tubingen “Troy in Clearer Perspective,” Anatolian Studies 53 (2003): 71 – 88.

This article is one in the Cultural History of Turkey series. For the description of any cultures or tribes please read that article.