This article is one in the Cultural History of Turkey series. For the description of any cultures or tribes please read that article.
Even though the trade between the Anatolians and Assyrians existed before the Middle Bronze age, it became more organized towards 19th century BC and created its own infrastructure. Asia minor in the beginning of the second millennium BC was developed enough with its rich palaces and bronze making capabilities; however, the Assyrians had the knowledge, experience, and sophistication to set up market places, called Karu (singular karum), merchant associations to organize the trade, to make contracts with the rulers of the kingdoms in Asia Minor, handle the disputes between traders, and between debtors and creditors (a judicial system). This was an extremely developed enterprise reminding us today’s international trade activities. The system was credit and loan based. There were investors, creditors, and debtors. Although the merchants were very much independent in their decisions and actions, they were supervised by the karu in Kanesh (Kanesh was about twenty kilometers north-east of Kayseri. It was generally known by the name of Nesha or Nesa). The ultimate supervisor though in the Assyrian side was the Assyrian kingdom and in Asia Minor side, it was the small independent kingdoms.
As noted above the Assyrian merchants were extremely well organized. At the top there were the experienced merchants with their headquarters in the Assyrian city of Assur (also known as Ashur). They used to send their subordinates, possibly young male family members, to Anatolia to make the deals, to buy and sell. The subordinates, who came to Asia Minor, settled there in karu (some of them permanently either bringing their wives, or marrying local Anatolian girls) doing the actual buying and selling, and ordering new merchandise to be sent to Anatolia through their associates, some of which were female relatives, in Assyria. As the young merchants get experience and accumulate capital, they were moving up in the ladder and creating their own import-export business. At the bottom of the hierarchy were the individuals who were responsible of delivering the merchandise to its destinations. They were the individuals traveling with caravans, handling the animals, paying all the tolls and taxes.
We know from the Assyrian tablets that there were twenty-one karu, i.e., market places in Asia Minor. However, only three of them were discovered so far. The most important karum in Asia Minor, was in the city of Kanesh/Nesa, in Kültepe, near Kayseri. The others were Hattus (Kattus) and Alişar in Halys’ basin. Other than karu, small exchange places, called wabaratum (singular wabartum) were formed, which were actually functioning mostly no more than observation posts for the caravans’ safety.
Traders were aware of their militarily weaknesses and tried to compensate that with their financial power. They complained about the quality of the roads. They asked once the king Sargon of Akkad to attack the Asia Minor King Nur-Dagan of Purushanda.
The main commodities imported to Asia Minor were tin and textile. Although Asia Minor was rich in minerals, such as copper. There was not much tin. So tin was imported to make bronze. One of the main use of bronze was to make weapons. Textile was manufactured in Asia Minor too. However, the textile imported from Assyria was of higher quality. In return, Asia Minor was exporting copper, silver, and gold.
Trading was a win-win situation. Every one involved was making money. Traders were making approximately 100% profit in the tin trade and 200% profit in the textile trade. However, the cost of business was also high. There were taxes levied by the kings of Assyria and Asia Minor. There were tolls imposed by the cities, and other municipalities the caravans pass by. In return, kings were providing security for the caravans, which were made of tens to hundreds of donkeys. Since taxes and tolls were high there was a strong incentive to avoid them. One approach was to take side roads instead of the main roads, but this has its own hazards. Since it is a road not protected by the kings it was dangerous. Also if the kings’ soldiers catch tax evaders they used to impose harsh penalties, such as prison, confiscating the merchandise. Another one was smuggling the merchandise. These illegal actions if caught also were punished with severe penalties. So experienced traders were advising the novices to resist the temptation.
Although Asia minor was in transition towards historic phase still majority of the indigenous Anatolians did not know how to write. So Assyrians well equipped with a literacy were taking advantage of the indigenous people, exploiting them in the exchange of goods. Traders were buying cheep unprocessed material and in return selling manufactured goods.
Assyrian merchants were sensitive to the stability and safety of the territories they used. They thrived during the times when there were countless number of rulers, chieftains, and kings in Asia Minor living side by side in peace and harmony. As a result of trade however, the kings of Anatolia became aware of the importance of their territorial boundaries, because, if a trading route passes through their territory they were making money. So territorial disputes became common. Assyrian colony period came to an end as these small states started fighting for territory and hence supremacy. Eventually Hittites consolidated their power and united as one kingdom. Assyrian traders lost their advantage and disappeared from the history of Asia Minor.
Sources
- The book titled as “The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations”, Museum of Anatolia Civilizations; First Edition (January 1, 1999) ISBN 978-9751721983
- Ekrem Akurgal, “Anadolu Kültür Tarihi,” TÜBİTAK Popüler Bilim Kitaplari, April 2008, ISBN 978-975-403-107-2
- Bryce, Trevor, “The Kingdom of the Hittites,” Oxford University Press, Inc. New York, 1998, p 11-14.
- Tügüt Yigit, Doç. Dr., A.Ü. Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi, Tarih Bölümü öğretim üyesi, “The First Appearance of the Hittite Cuneiform.”
- ÖKSE, Tuba, A. Doç, Dr. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Arkeoloji Bölümü/Ankara, “Kızılırmak ve Fırat Havzalarını Birbirine Bağlayan Eski Kervan Yolları,” bilig Yaz/2005, sayı 34:15-32 © Ahmet Yesevi Üniversitesi Mütevelli Heyet Başkanlığı okse@hacettepe.edu.tr
- “Historical Dictionary of the Hittites,” by Charles Burney, The Scarecrow Press, 2004 p.105-106
This article is one in the Cultural History of Turkey series. For the description of any cultures or tribes please read that article.