This article is one in the Cultural History of Turkey series. For the description of any cultures or tribes please read that article.

According to Herodotus the Lycians’ origin was Crete. Lycus1, who was expelled by his brother Aigos, settled in the south-western corner of Asia Minor and so the name Lycian derives from Lykos. A few peculiar things about the Lycians: They served as mercenaries for the Persians and later for the Greeks. Also according to Herodotus the Lycians were a matrilineal society and grew long hair. Lycian Confederation (200 – 43 BC) was one of the ancient leagues James Madison studied as one of the framers of the US constitution. St Nicholas, also known as Santa Claus, was born in a Lycian City, Patara and was the bishop of another Lycian city, Myra. The Lycians called themselves Trimmili.

In the Hittite written records the ancestors of the Lycians were mentioned as the Lukka people and the lands they lived were called the Lukka lands. In the period of the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses2 II3 the written sources mentioned them as the Lukkus. In fact, the Egyptians saw the Lycians as the allies of the Hittites because there were the Lukkas in the Hittite army in the Battle of Kadesh. They also fought against the Greeks in the Trojan wars under the leadership of Sarpedon, Glaukos, and Pandaros.

The prevailing view is that the Lycians were truly an Anatolian people with their Anatolian character and related to the Luwians and Hittites. Although from the unearthed records it is known that the Lycians existed since 13th century BC and possibly came from the Bosphorus area in the north in the second half of the third millennium BC, further excavations did not produce any evidence for their existence for the period between 1200 – 700 BC in the commonly known Lycian lands.

Lycia lies on the southwest coast of Asia Minor, between Caria and Pamphylia. Some known important cities were Tlos, Xanthos, Pinara4, and Patara. Xanthos5 was possibly its capital. Some other less known cities were Phelos6, Limyra, Olympos, Milyas, Stratonikeia7, and Phaselis. In its history east and west Lycia showed some different identifiable character, which can be attested by the coins minted.

Since the written documents unearthed are not completely deciphered and understood well the archaeologists focused their attention to the coins minted by the Lycian rulers. The coins found in the hoards give clues about the history of the Lycians. The identity of the rulers in power in Lycia and the countries influencing Lycia at that time can be surmised by studying the coins. The figures in the coins, the way they were depicted, the head dresses the figures had, give some clues about the Lycian’s history. Other source of knowledge about the Lycians came from the funerary monuments.

History

Lycia was strategically located at the southwestern corner of Asia Minor, as mentioned before. In the ancient times sea travel close to the coastal line seemed to be preferred since open seas were dangerous. Hence Lycia, in essence, was on the sea route between the East and West, between Mediterranean and Aegean seas. For this reason these areas were the battle ground for the main powers. Most of the Lycian history seemed to be written as a struggle to fight against the powerful foreign invaders, namely the Athenians and Persians. They were attacked and invaded by the Persians and Greeks. Lycia switched sides. It sometimes fought against the Greeks and sometimes rebelled against the Persians.

One can associate most of the Lycian history with the Xanthian Dynasty.

Xanthian Dynasty Family Members (not in chronological order)

• Kheziga (c. 526-525 BC)
• Kuprlli/Kybernis (c. 525-480 BC)
• Kheziga
• Kuprlli/Kybernis (c. 480-440 BC)
• Kheriga
• Arppakhu
• Kheziga
• Udine
• Kheriga/Gergis
• Kherei (c. 410-390)
• Merehi
• Erbbina/Arbinas (c. 390-380 BC)

Kheriga fought first against the general Melesandros and later against Lysikles, both of whom were sent by Athens. The fight ended with Kheriga’s victory. In addition to the Xanthian dynasty. Lycia is ruled by other rulers, notably Perikle1. He was one of the prominent rulers of the Lycians. He fought against the Persian dynasts, Arttumpara and Mithrapata. After the end of Perikle’s reign, Autophradates, a Persian satrap, assumed power in Lycia. He kept his “Satrap” title instead of taking the title of “King of Lycia”. However, his reign did not last long. Shortly after his ascend to power Lycia’s control was given to the Satrap of Caria, Mausolus, by the Persians. Around 334 – 333 BC Alexander, the Great from Macedonia invaded Lycia. Lycia became part of the Hellenistic Kingdom. The erosion of the Lycian culture, which started with the rule of the Carians, accelerated with the invasion of Alexander. The Lycian language and identity completely disappeared by the end of the fourth century BC. In addition to the cultural influence of Hellenes, considerable size of Greeks settled in Lycia. Assimilation was through so much so that the Lycians were called the Greek people in Cicero’s times. The Lycian history came to an end in the third century AD.

The Lycian language originated from the Luwi language. Their alphabet had roots in the Phoenician alphabet, similar to the Hellene, Phrygian, and Lydian alphabets. In addition to their authentic alphabet and language, the Lycians had a unique religion and mythology. However, after the 5th century BC they were heavily influenced by the Hellenes and lost their native culture. The earliest discovered writings from the Lycians date back to the 5th century BC. Unfortunately their language is not completely deciphered. That limits today’s knowledge about them.

The Lycian Religion and Cults

For a couple of reasons, little is known about the religious practices of the Lycians. First, it is the scant archaeological evidence about the Lycian life style. Second, it is the strong Greek influence and assimilation. It is hard to say which gods and other deities originally belong to the Lycians and which ones belonged to the Greeks. Further, not much known about the roles of the Lycian rulers and leaders in the religious affairs. Although there was some cultural and political unity throughout Lycia it is hard to say if there was a cohesion when it comes to religion. It seems like different regions had different religious beliefs.

The Lycian’s main deity was Leto. Letoön was the sanctuary dedicated for Leto and her twin children, Apollo and Artemis. The Lycian inscriptions in the sanctuary built for Leto tells that the main Lycian goddess is Ëni Mahanahi2 or Ëni Qlahi Ebijehi3. These names seem to refer to Leto. Ëni Mahanahi is also another name for the Luwian goddess Anniš Maššanaššis, the name of the Anatolian mother Goddess, which is also known as Cybele.

The Lycian inscriptions mention another name, Trqqas, which is the same name given to the Hittite /Anatolian storm-God Tarhunt. There is a strong evidence that this name might be identified as Zeus. Yet, another deity is Malija, otherwise known as Athena by the Greeks. Her existence is attested in various inscriptions throughout Lycia, such as Tlos, Xanthos, the Letoön, Tyberissos, and Arneai. Malija’s existence goes back to the Hittites. And its name was often used as place and personal names in the second and first millennium BC. As mentioned above, it seems like the deity exchange between the Greeks and Lycians is both ways. The Lycians seemed to barrow Aphrodite and called her Pedrita. Some other major deities and heroes of the Lycians were Kronos1, Dioskouroi2, Sarpedon3, and Bellerophon4.

The Hellene writers tell that some of their legends originated from Lycia. However, studies showed that the imaginary creatures in the Hellene mythology had its origins back in the Late Hittite mythology.

Architecture

The Lycian funerary monuments, mostly tombs5, were of four types: heroön, pillar, sarcophagus, and rock cut. Tombs were made of wood and stone. The Lycians built benches inside the tombs for the deceased to rest. The Lycian sculptors were influenced by both eastern6 and western7 cultures. Although this type of art, i.e., burial monuments, was seen in the ancient Anatolia starting from the times of the Hittites and later carried out by the Urartians and Phrygians, the Lycians developed their own unique style.

Sources

1. Akurgal, Ekrem, “Anadolu Kültür Tarihi,” TÜBİTAK Popüler Bilim Kitaplari, April 2008, ISBN 978-975-403-107-2.
2. Sander, Oral, “The Complexity of the Process of Civilization,” Ancient Anatolia as a Case in Point, The Turkish Yearbook [vol. XVII], Dergiler, Ankara.
3. Keen, Anthony G. Dynastic Lycia: A Political History of the Lycians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers, c. 545-362 B.C., (Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava: Supplementa number 178.) New York: E. J. Brill, 1998. Pp 268, ISSN: 00028762.

Further Reading

1. Trevor R. Bryce Trevor Bryce, Jan Zahle, ” The Lycians: The Lycians in literary and epigraphic sources,” © Museum Tusculanum Press 1986, Camera-ready Manuscript: The University of New England, Armidale Printed in Denmark, by Special-Trykkeriet a-s, Cover: Kjeld Kjeldsen, ISBN 87-7289-023-1.

This article is one in the Cultural History of Turkey series. For the description of any cultures or tribes please read that article.