The Aegean Civilizations in Turkey

This article is one in the Cultural History of Turkey series. For the description of any cultures or tribes please read that article.

The first civilization that arose in the Bronze Age in the Aegean islands (Crete and Cyclades) was the Minoans, 2000-1100BC. They got their name from their king, Minos. In the late Bronze Age, however, a new civilization appeared, the Mycenaeans, which were the ancestors of the Hellenes1, 1600-1200BC. The invaders, known as Dorians, from the northwest destroyed the Mycenaean settlements (C. 1200BC) and the Hellenes’ world entered into a dark age that lasted till 800BC. After 800BC the Hellene civilization started rising again and the Hellenes created their empire and sown the seeds of the Western Civilization, epitomized in the concept of democracy. Since then the history and culture of the Aegean Sea, its coasts, and its islands became mostly the history and culture of the Hellenes. The Greeks called themselves Hellenes and originally they used to call themselves Mycenaeans.

The Hellene society was very different from its contemporaries in many ways. The Hellenes were fiercely individualistic and competitive in almost destructive levels. Independence in personal and city-state (poleis) level was very important. Defeat in any contest meant humiliation and was not acceptable under any circumstances. Their personal interests and honor were above everything. For these reasons they were not able to unite to defend themselves against foreign powers except Persians. They were beaten by the Thebans, and subjugated by the Macedonians and later by the Romans.

In the beginning of history the eastern civilizations were more advanced than the western counterparts. However this status-quo changed around the eighth century BC. The eastern cultures lost their prominence and since then, starting with the Hellenes, the western cultures surpassed the east. During the eighth century BC the Egyptians, the Babylonians, the Phoenicians, the Assyrians, the Late Hittites, and the Urartians were representing the high eastern civilizations. The Hellenes came into contact with the eastern civilizations during this time. The Hellene ships were sailing throughout the eastern Mediterranean coastal area, selling their products and acquiring the products of these superior civilizations.

Although the Hellenes inherited the 300-character Mycenaean alphabet and the Linear-B alphabet was known, writing was not common since these alphabets were forgotten during the dark ages. The literacy flourished after they adopted the Phoenician alphabet in c. 770BC and between 600 – 450 BC they culturally made a big progress. They transformed the knowledge of Egypt and Mesopotamia into reasoning (the origin of science), eastern astrology to western astronomy, healers’ practices to modern medicine. They improved simple art of story telling from monologue recitations to that consisted of three actors and a chorus (the origin of modern theater), and with invention of perspective the two dimensional reliefs to three dimensional art.

During the Greek expansion, 750-580BC, the Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians migrated to the western2 coasts of Asia Minor. The Aeollians settled between Troy3 and Smyrna4 in the north. The Ionians settled between Smyrna and Miletus5, and in the south, in the region between Miletus to Lycia the Dorians created their own colonies. The Hellenes’ expansion did not stop there, it continued around the Black Sea coasts, east coasts of Italy, and the north coasts of Africa.

The Aeolians, being in the north, had less interaction with the eastern cultures. So their development took longer. Influenced by the eastern cultures, the Aeolians and Ionians created small city states, also called citizen-states (known as poleis or polis). These city states established trade fleets and centers around the Aegean Sea. They became rich through sea trading. With more leisure time and the material wealth they excelled in all the areas of civilization, such as, art, ceramics, architectures, medicine, and science. However, these city states were short lived. They were annexed by big and strong kingdoms and empires.

The Persian Rule in Asia Minor (c. 546-334 BC)

From the year 546 BC when the founder of the Persian Kingdom, Cyrus invaded the western Asia Minor to 334 BC, when the Macedonian king Alexander, the Great crossed Hellespont from Thrace, Asia Minor lived under the Persian rule for more than 200 years. The Persian Kingdom was the last representative of the Mesopotamian civilization. The Persians were the first eastern people, which tried to spread towards the west. In 585 BC the Median King Cyaxares defeated the Lydian King Alyattes I, (759- 745 BC) and conquered some parts of Asia Minor. After this war the lands to the east of Halys River was ruled by the Persians. In 546 BC the founder of the Persian kingdom, Cyrus took Sardis2 and hence became the ruler of the western Asia Minor.

The Persians, after conquering the entire Asia Minor, turned their attention toward Hellas. Although they destroyed Athens and won the battle in Thermopylai, 480 BC, they lost a sequence of wars: the battle of Marathon, 490BC, the Salamis sea battle in 480BC, and Plataea in 479 BC3 and they retreated to Asia Minor after these defeats.

Alexander, the Great (336-323BC)

As the Hellene city states fighting each other, a new powerful kingdom, Macedonia, was rising in the north of the Greek peninsula. Philip II of Macedonia, Alexander’s father, defeated the allied forces of Athens and Thebans in the Battle of Chaeronea (338BC) and bequeathed his son a conquered and secured Greece. He also provided Alexander with a professional and very powerful army. Alexander ascended to the throne in 336BC and set out to conquer Asia following his father’s grand vision. He marched to Hellespont from Thrace in 334BC. He met the Persian army at Granicus and defeated it. From there he marched to Sardis, the Lydian capital, The Persian satrap there surrendered. Then he liberated Ionia by expelling the pro-Persian Junta. Miletus surrendered. He besieged Halicarnassus, which fell after a year. He liberated many small city states on his path, such as Didyma4 and Priene5. He fined Aspendos because of its betrayal. He stayed at the King Midas’ Palace in Gordium. Here he cut the Gordium knot in anger after trying but failing to untie it6. In 333BC the armies of Alexander and Darius III met at Issus7. Darius lost the war and fled the battle field. Alexander met with Dairus again in Gaugamela in 331BC. He defeated Dairus the second time and Dairus fled the battle field again. After conquering the whole Near East, some parts of India, and Afghanistan, Alexander, the Great died in Babylon in June 323BC, possibly because of a fever. He was not even 33 years old yet, after reigning 12 years and 9 months.

Hellenistic Period (333-30BC)

With the conquest of Hellespont by Alexander, the Great the Greek civilization had its second golden age started. This is called the Hellenistic Period (333-30 BC).

After the death of Alexander, the Great although there were some potential candidates to the throne to keep the unity of the empire, the successors kept fighting to carve it out. Antigonus I, the governor of Phrygia started expanding the area of his influence. Demetrius prepared to attack Rhodes and Cyprus. However long struggles exhausted his strength. He was only able to control western part of Asia Minor. And Lysimachus created a kingdom in Northern Asia Minor and Thrace. Alexander’s infantry commander Seleucus allied with Lysimachus, defeated and killed Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301BC. Out of ashes of Alexander’s empire four new kingdoms emerged. Two of them held on to the territories in Asia Minor. Lysimachus reigning part of Asia Minor and Thrace and finally Seleucus created a vast empire from the Aegean (Sardis) to Central Asia (Samarkand).

The Seleucid Empire

The Seleucid empire (312-200BC) continued spreading the Hellene culture and civilization throughout the Near East and Asia. Although its capital was Antioch8, Ephesus9 flourished as the western end of the trade routes in this vast empire and occasionally was treated as like the western capital.

The Gauls, the Celtic invaders from the north, attacked the Greek peninsula and crossed to Asia Minor. However, they were first defeated by Antigonus at Lysimachia in 278 BC and later by the Seleucid Antiochus I in 275BC. The Seleucids allowed them to settle in Asia Minor. The land they settled was called Galatia.

The Attalid ruler Eumenes I, of Pergamum broke away from the Seleucids and lost a big territory. However, his successor allied himself with the Romans and Pergamum1 became one of the richest kingdoms. The library of Pergamum rivaled to that of Alexandria’s. In 200BC the Seleucid Antiochus defeated Pergamum, regaining the western Asia Minor back all the way to the Aegean Sea. However, Antiochus lost the battle against the Roman army lead by Scipio Africanus at Magnesia2 in Asia Minor in 192BC and the Pergamum’s cavalry finished the job by destroying the Seleucid phalanx. Pergamum restored its control of western Asia Minor west of Taurus Mountains two years later with the treaty of Apamea.

Mithradates

Mithradates V (c.150-120BC) was one of the strongest kings of the Pontus, a kingdom around the black sea in the northeast of Asia Minor. His son Mithradates VI3 (120-63BC) became Rome’s greatest enemy. He extended his influence around the Black Sea. He took over the Cimmerian Bosphorus4 in 185BC. Mithradates ran over the kingdom of Bithynia in 88BC and crossed to Hellas. Athens rebelled against Romans with the encouragement and support of Mithradates. The Roman General Sulla defeated Mithradates and crushed rebellion and sacked Athens (86- 85BC). Athens’ surrender came too late. Mithradates gave up all his gains and retreated to his home land, Pontus.

Aeolian Enlightenment, 650-520BC

The Hellenes were first influenced by their more sophisticated and rich neighbors, the Phrygians and later the Lydians. Luckily the Lydians did not intervene the internal affairs of the Hellenes although only independent Ionian city left was Miletus.

The seeds of western civilization, as we know it, were sown in Asia Minor. The Hellene civilization reached its peak in two hundred years, (c. 500-300BC), the Classical Age, which can be divided into the first and second classical periods. One of the famous architects of the first Classical Period (470 – 400 BC) was Hippodamus of Miletus. He developed the grid city plan in the fist half of the 5th century BC. This type geometric city plan was used in many Aegean cities including Miletus. In the second Classical period (400 – 300 BC ) the Aegean area gained prominence again. The cities Priene, Miletus, Cynidus5, and Labraunda6 made name in architecture and sculpture in the 4th century BC.

The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was completed in 550BC. It is burned down and rebuilt in the 4th century. It has a height of 42 meters. This temple and the Mausoleum of Mausolus are considered two of the seven wonders of the world. Famous sculptures of the Mausoleum of Mausolus were Leochares, Scopas7 of Paros, Timotheus, and Bryaxis.

In the Hellenistic Period (333-30 BC) Pergamum, Priene, Miletus, Magnesia at Maeander8, Teos9, a maritime city of Ionia, Clarus10, and Smintheus11 became the most prominent Asia Minor cities of antiquity in art and culture. The sculptures in the Zeus altar in Pergamum are some of the best works of the Hellenistic era.

After the death of Alexander, Asia Minor is split into a variety of kingdoms, some of which were truly the representatives of the Hellenistic culture, such as the Pergamum kingdom (283-133BC) in the lands of Aeolians and Ionians and the Bithynia kingdom (327-74BC) in the north east of Asia Minor. The Pontus (302 – 36 BC) and Commagene kingdoms on the other hand, although advanced Alexander’s cultural policies, were in essence part of the eastern Persian culture.

The Hellene world in this period made big progress economically as a result of interaction with the eastern cultures. The cultural centers, such as Pergamum and Ephesus, also became trade centers. The library in Pergamum became the main science and education center in Asia Minor rivaling to the one in Alexandria, Egypt. Other than Hittites, the Hellenes were the only people that showed respect to human rights and valued them highly. The Hellenes adorned their cities with temples dedicated to their gods. Some of which are Artemis temple in Ephesus, Apollo12 temple in Didyma, Athena temple in Priene, Artemis temple in Sardis, Lydia, Dorian style Athena temple built in 3rd century BC (by Hermogenes of Priene), Dionysus temple in Teos (architected by Hermogenes), Zeus Sosipolis temple in Magnesia, and Artemis temple in Magnesia (which is the biggest temple built by Hermogenes).

Homer, who was possibly born in Smyrna1, created2 his beautiful epic poem, the Iliad. The Iliad was created in an Aeolian and Ionian mixed dialect. Since the poem was created in this mixed dialect the consensus among experts is that it must be created in Smyrna, which is a city where this mixed dialect is used. The epic poem, the Iliad, was used to be recited by the poet from memory in the kings’ and tyrants’ presence in palaces, and also out in the public. The Iliad and the Odyssey, were eventually written down in the time of tyrant Peisistratus3 in Athens around 560 BC.

Most of the Hellene gods seem to have some connection to the gods of the eastern cultures in Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. The gods Uranus, Cronus, and Zeus remind us Mesopotamian gods Anu (Sky God or the god of heaven)4, Kumarbi, and Alalu.

Influenced by the ideas of Anaxagoras of Clazomenae5 in Asia Minor, and Protagoras of Abdera, Thrace, Socrates criticized the Hellenistic religion and condemned to death.

Music was an important part of the Hellene culture, in addition to the Dorian, Ionian, and Aeolian musical modes, the Phrygian and Lydian originated modes were also common due to the eastern influence. The eastern influence was also seen in the development of the musical instruments. The interaction between the east and west was very strong. The historians cite the lyric Poet Pindar’s (518-442BC) participation in a music symposion in Lydia.

Almost all the poets living in Asia Minor between 700-600 BC were of Ionian and Aeolian origin. A few names to mention Callinus6 who lived in Ephesus and Mimnermus of Colophon (630-600BC). They were elegiac poets. Some other Asia Minor poets worth mentioning are lyric poet Anacreon, who was born in Teos, and an iambic poet Hipponax, who was expelled from Ephesus and moved to Clazomenae. The Ionians due to the population growth and fast development of the civilization started spreading further east from their current region in the western coasts of Asia Minor. They started developing towns in the Aeolian lands and also created colonies in Propontis. The Ionian and Aeolian Art (650 – 550 BC) was heavily influenced by the late Hittite, Urartian, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations. The Hellenes developed architectural styles called orders7. These are called Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, (Roman) Tuscan, and composite. The Hellene architecture is appreciated in the western world since then. For example, the White House in Washington, DC was built in the Ionian Style.

The leadership in arts and sciences passed from the Near East to the western Asia Minor around 600 BC8. The Aegean nature philosophers founded the basis of mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and medicine. Miletus, the largest and richest Ionian port city before 500BC was also the birth place of philosophy. Ionian Thales, Anaximander9, Anaximenes, all from Miletus, were the first three philosophers of the western world. According to Herodotus, Thales10 predicted the date of solar eclipse that occurred on May 28, 585 BC. Thales is also known to measure the height of the Egyptian pyramids by measuring the length of his and the pyramid’s shadow. Some people claimed that Thales also diverted the Halys River for the Lydian king Croesus. Anaximander of Miletus (610 – 547 BC) invented the sun dial, made a map of the known world at that time.

Many very well known names of the Hellenes’ world were from the western shores of Asia Minor. Among them are Philosopher Bias of Priene (575 – 545BC), citizen of Priene, Heraclitus (550-480 BC) of Ephesus, Xenophanes (570-475BC) of Colophon11, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (496-428 BC), and Leucippus of Miletus. Leucippus developed the theory of atomism. In around 700 BC another famous writer was Hesiod, who wrote “The Works and Days (Erga Kai Hemerai)” and “Theogony”, Origin of the Gods. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (500/496-428 BC), the son of Hegesiboulis, introduced the cosmological concept of Nous (mind). Herodotus of Halicarnassus12 (c.484-425 BC) travelled to Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran, Black sea coast of Asia Minor, Sicily, and Athens to write his book, the Histories. His work reflects the civilization of his time and more importantly it compares East and West. With the Persian invasion of Asia Minor, the scientific development moved first to Italy, and later to Athens and Alexandria.

Diogenes of Sinope13, 404-325BC, was one of the most eccentric philosophers the Hellenes had. He despised the materialistic world, lived in a tub, took care of all his bodily functions in public. He was the only person who mocked Alexander, the Great and survived. When Alexander asked him if there is anything he can do, he said yes and he asked Alexander not to block the sunlight. The Hellenes called him cynos (dog), hence the philosophy, called cynicism was born. His followers are called cynics.

The Persian Influence in Asia Minor

The Hellene city states were governed in relatively independent manner by the Persian rulers, who are called satraps. Some of the well known ones were the satrap of Sardis and the satrap of Dascylium14 near Lake Manyas15. Persian influence can be seen in Lycia, Caria, Mysia16, and Pontus, present-day Northeastern Turkey. These satraps envied and imitated glamorous eastern palace life of the Persian kings.

With the Persian conquest of Asia Minor the golden age of the Ionians and Aeolians in Asia Minor ended. The lead in civilization passed to Hellas1 and Italia. Nevertheless, some cities that allied with the Persians and lived under the Persian domination were able to continue their cultural development. Involvement in art continued in Propontis2, Lydia and Caria. Darius I of the Persian3 empire in his quest to conquer the west, built 1,400 miles (2,400 Km) long King Road4 in the fifth century BC. Fast horses were used to carry messages between the center of the Persian empire and its Asia Minor satraps. Hence Asia Minor for the first time became a bridge between east and west and continued to be so for many centuries. The road starts at Ephesus and reaches Sardis, from there to Gordium5 and to Halys river6. It continues to Euphrates7 through Cilician Gates8. Finally it crosses Tigris river9 and reaches Susa.

Warfare and Weapons

The Hellenes were citizen fighters. When war declared the civilian citizens take up their arms and go to war. Originally when they voted for a war they were putting their own lives in danger. This changed later however, they started using slaves extensively. The Spartans was an exception. They had a very disciplined professional army. Later Macedonians, under the leadership of Philip II created the most formidable professional army. They also added new fighting tools, such as strong catapults. The Macedonian armies outperformed the Spartans, only to be beaten by the more powerful Romans. The heavy infantry, called hoplites, in the land and the triremes in the sea were the main fighting force. The Hoplites were recruited from poor peasants where as the cavalry was mostly upper class citizen. The financial burden of the triremes were on the rich people.

The Hoplites’ main weapons were spears, pikes, and sarissas (6.3m). They used to carry sarissas in upright position during march. They also carried sword and shield. They used to hang the shield on their left shoulders and brought them to the front to prepare for fight since sarissa was very heavy they needed both hands to handle it. Their helmets were covering their head with small slits for eyes and nose. However, since the ears were covered, hearing commands was becoming a problem. Later they made openings around ears. The Hoplites used a formation called phalanx during combat. Phalanx might be eight to sixteen deep. Later they had phalanx formation up to fifty-deep. However, these formations needed lots of training and discipline. When the soldiers were carrying their shields on their left side their right side was vulnerable. So for this reason another hoplite had to cover the right hand side. And they have to fight very close to each other. Because of the difficulty to sustain this formation they lost many wars to more versatile Roman armies. The first few rows of the phalanx formation used to level their sarissas to nearly horizontal position when engaging with the enemy. The remaining, back, rows used to keep their sarissa slanted or upright position depending how far they were from the front rows. The slanted and upright positioned sarissas used to help deflect the arrows and other projectiles raining on them. When sarissas were swung they made a swooshing sound menacing the enemies.

Alexander used to lead his cavalry in fights in a wedge shaped formation for more effectiveness. However, cavalry never became an important part in the wars because of the lack of open battle fields. Another problem with cavalry in those times was that the stirrups were not invented. Fighters had difficulty staying on the horse when their spears hit their enemies.

The phalanx had its own weaknesses. It was not effective and mostly vulnerable in non- uniform battle fields where hoplites had to fight individually without protection provided by other fighters right and left. It was also not effective against the more flexible Roman army which can fight independently in small groups of soldiers. Sarissas were not effective in close combat either.

Archers and slingers were also deployed in the wars. The archers used composite bows, made of horn, wood, and sinew. The arrows had a range of 140m (153 yards). Sling’s range was much greater than arrows’, 280m (306 yards). The sling shot was either stone, clay, or lead.

In addition to the small arms the armies of those times had big weapons, such as rams, catapults10, and siege towers. Rams were used to break the gates of the castles. Siege towers were used to scale the walls. And catapults were used to hurl big rocks on to enemy.

The Hellenes were a seafaring people. Sea was part of their life. So the main strength of the Hellenes was their naval forces. They copied the design of galley from the Phoenicians. Galleys had sails but they used oars to move fast during a sea battle. The Hellenes used Penteconters and biremes, a type of galley. The body of the ship was built from pinewood. Its oars were spruce. They had to be beached during nights and winters. They had to be steered by the oars since rudder was not invented yet. The oars were extended from portholes of the ship. Penteconters were rowed by fifty oarsmen, twenty five on each side. A second bank of oars was added by Phoenicians. The new type of ship is called biremes. Later biremes were replaced by triremes that have three banks of oars. A Triremes was 37m(121ft)1 long and 5.5m(18ft)2 wide. The oars were 4.5m(15ft). There were twenty seven oars on the bottom bank, close to sea level. There were also twenty seven oars in the middle and thirty one oars on the top bank, totally 170 rowers. Each ship had two anchors. A squadron of 20 hoplites would be on board.

The main weapon of these battle ships was ram. There were variety of techniques and tactics applied in ram use. One of them was just hitting the enemy’s ship head on with the ram. The other one, which was more clever, was to pass by the enemy’s ship very closely while a ram on the side breaking the oars of the other ship, effectively crippling it.

Sources

Akurgal, Ekrem, “Anadolu Kültür Tarihi,” TÜBİTAK Popüler Bilim Kitaplari, April 2008, ISBN 978-975-403-107-2.
Rodgers, Nigel, “The Rise and Fall of Ancient Greece,” Lorenz Books.
Camp, John, and Fisher, Elizabeth, “The World of the Ancient Greeks,” ISBN 0-500-05112-7, published by Thames & Hudson, New York, New York.
Evans, James Allan, “The Daily Life in the Hellenistic Age from Alexander to Cleopatra,” Published by Greenwood Press.
Rosalie F. and Charles F. Baker III, “Ancient Greeks: Creating the Classical Tradition,” published by Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 0-19-509940-0.
Nardo, Don (editor), “The Decline and Fall of Ancient Greece,” ISBM 0-7377-0241-9, Greenhaven Press, Inc. San Diego, California.
Grant, Michael, “The Founders of the Western World, a History of Greece and Rome,” ISBN 0-684-19303-5, published by Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, Maxwell Macmillan International, Macmillan Publishing Company, 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022.

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